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Review of Scientific Instruments / Volume 83 / Issue 1 / INVITED ARTICLE
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 83, 011301 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3674173 (12 pages)

Invited Article: Refractive index matched scanning of dense granular materials

Joshua A. Dijksman1, Frank Rietz2, Kinga A. Lőrincz3, Martin van Hecke4, and Wolfgang Losert5

1Physics Department, Duke University, Box 90305, Durham, North Carolina 27708-0305, USA
2Max-Planck-Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Faßberg 17, 37077 Göttingen, Germany; Department of Nonlinear Phenomena, University Magdeburg, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106 Magdeburg, Germany; and Center for Nonlinear Dynamics, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C1610, Austin, Texas 78712, USA
3Universiteit van Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
4Kamerlingh Onnes Lab, Universiteit Leiden, Postbus 9504, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
5Department of Physics, IPST, and IREAP, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA

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(Received 18 April 2011; accepted 1 September 2011; published online 24 January 2012)

We review an experimental method that allows to probe the time-dependent structure of fully three-dimensional densely packed granular materials and suspensions by means of particle recognition. The method relies on submersing a granular medium in a refractive index matched fluid. This makes the resulting suspension transparent. The granular medium is then visualized by exciting, layer by layer, the fluorescent dye in the fluid phase. We collect references and unreported experimental know-how to provide a solid background for future development of the technique, both for new and experienced users.

© 2012 American Institute of Physics

Article Outline

  1. INTRODUCTION
  2. INDEX MATCHED SCANNING BASICS
  3. INDEX MATCHED SCANNING: MATERIALS AND METHODS
    1. Solids
    2. Liquids
    3. Fluorescent dyes
    4. Index matching: Quality and tuning
  4. INDEX MATCHED SCANNING: INSTRUMENT DESIGN
    1. Setup dimensions
    2. Imaging rate
      1. Scan rate limitations
    3. Illumination, optics, and video
      1. Lasers
      2. Optics
      3. Video
    4. Mechanics
    5. Routines for postprocessing RIMS images
  5. CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK

KEYWORDS, PACS, and IPC

Keywords

dyes, fluorescence, granular materials, refractive index, suspensions

PACS

  • 78.20.Ci

    Optical constants (including refractive index, complex dielectric constant, absorption, reflection and transmission coefficients, emissivity)

  • 82.70.Kj

    Emulsions and suspensions

  • 78.55.Bq

    Liquids

International Patent Classification (IPC)

  • C09B

    Organic dyes or closely-related compounds for producing dyes; Mordants; Lakes

ARTICLE DATA

Digital Object Identifier
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3674173

PUBLICATION DATA

ISSN

0034-6748 (print)  
1089-7623 (online)

Publisher

$abstract.society.value is a Member of CrossRef American Institute of Physics

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Figures (8) Tables (3)

Figures (click on thumbnails to view enlargements)

FIG.1
(a) A schematic overview of a RIMS setup, with all the essential components indicated. (b) A typical cross section of a suspension, obtained with RIMS. Particles (diameter 5 mm) appear as dark spots in a bright background. (c) A stack of cross sections. Brightness is inverted for clarity. (d) From subsequent volume scans, one can obtain particle traces; a few examples are shown here as red/gray lines in the box. The flow is driven from the bottom by a rotating disk, hence the circular trajectories. The stochastic motion of the particles is clearly visible.

FIG.1 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.2
The lengthscales encountered in a RIMS setup. The scan volume size is L, the particle diameter is d, the laser sheet to camera distance is r. The focal point of the laser is at distance f, the sheet thickness is e, and the focusing width (see text) is w.

FIG.2 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.3
Top views of a cross section of a RIMS volume. The laser sheet shines from the right and intersects a layer in which only the dyed fluid is present. (a) With a high dye concentration, the gradient in the fluorescence is clearly visible. (b) Using a lower dye concentration, the contrast is decreased, and even deep in the box, far to the left, fluorescence is still observed.

FIG.3 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.4
(a) A cross section of BK7 glass spheres in a fluid with varying index of refraction (see text). The number indicates the index mismatch nf − nB (see text) from the best matched sample (center). (b)–(d) Images of 3 mm glass beads at best index matching, ∼15 layers deep, for (b) soda-lime glass, (c) crystal glass, (d) BK7 glass.

FIG.4 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.5
Ray-traced images of the visibility of a red cone and a red disk buried under seven layers of particles, in a box with about 25 particle layers between cone and camera. (a) The perspective; the arrow indicates from which direction the cone is observed. (b) The effect of index mismatch nf − nB by keeping the index of the fluid nf = 1.500 constant. (c) The effect of a spread with standard deviation of 0.001 in the index of refraction of the beads; the mean nB = nf = 1.500. (d) The effect of the number of layers N imaged, with an index difference of 0.001 between the fluid and the particles and no index spread in the particles.

FIG.5 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.6
(a) The reference image for index mismatch measurements (see text). (b) Measurements of the image distortion at different fluid indices. Image (I) refers to worse matching and (II) refers to best matching.

FIG.6 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.7
Various timescales encountered in RIMS setups. The strain rate is set by the type of experiment. Volume scan time should be small enough to image a whole volume before the strain becomes too large. The data rate is tied to the volume scan time and is limited by the camera system and other setup components, as discussed in the text.

FIG.7 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

FIG.8
(a) Any ray in an optical system is described by its distance to the optical axis and angle. (b) A schematic diagram of the optical elements of a general RIMS.

FIG.8 Download High Resolution Image (.zip file) | Export Figure to PowerPoint

Tables

Table I. Specifications of different kinds of transparent materials. The first five materials are all types of glass. BK7 glass is a borosilicate glass with well-defined properties. For more information on different glass types, see Refs. 49,50,51. Refractive indices as specified by manufacturers or commercial resellers. Price increase indicated is exponential, and given only for 3 mm spheres or closest available size. Besides size, the price also depends on supplier, sphericity, and optical quality (see Fig. 4).

View Table
Table II. Table with common high nD fluids; (aq) means if dissolved in an aqueous solution. Refractive index data obtained from various commercial resellers and from Ref. 69.

View Table
Table III. Table with fluorescent dyes used. λabs and λemi  are absorption peak and emission peak wavelengths; note that these wavelengths depend on the solvent the dyes are dissolved in. Only confirmed solvent compatibility is mentioned; compatibility with other solvents is not excluded. However, we found that Rhodamine 6G cannot be dissolved in NaI (aq) or in a mixture of Cyclohexyl bromide + Decalin. Unreferenced compatibilities we have tested ourselves. Dyes are available from, e.g., Exciton, American Dye Source, Radiant, Atto-tec.

View Table


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