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Review of Scientific Instruments / Volume 82 / Issue 7 / INVITED REVIEW ARTICLE
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 82, 071101 (2011); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3610677 (25 pages)

Invited Review Article: Single-photon sources and detectors

M. D. Eisaman, J. Fan, A. Migdall, and S. V. Polyakov

National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA and Joint Quantum Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA

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(Received 14 December 2010; accepted 7 June 2011; published online 27 July 2011)

We review the current status of single-photon-source and single-photon-detector technologies operating at wavelengths from the ultraviolet to the infrared. We discuss applications of these technologies to quantum communication, a field currently driving much of the development of single-photon sources and detectors.

© 2011 American Institute of Physics

Article Outline

  1. INTRODUCTION
    1. What is a photon?
    2. Why produce and detect single photons?
    3. A brief history of single-photon sources and detectors
  2. SINGLE-PHOTON SOURCES
    1. Characteristics of an ideal single-photon source
    2. Deterministic sources
      1. Single-emitter systems
      2. Ensemble-based systems
    3. Probabilistic sources
      1. Parametric downconversion
      2. Four-wave mixing
      3. Probabilistic source issues
    4. Nontraditional approaches to single-photon sources
  3. SINGLE-PHOTON DETECTORS
    1. Characteristics of an ideal single-photon detector
    2. Non-photon-number-resolving detectors
      1. Photomultiplier tube
      2. Single-photon avalanche photodiode
      3. Quantum-dot field-effect transistor-based detector
      4. Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector
      5. Up-conversion single-photon detector
    3. Photon-number-resolving detectors
      1. Superconducting tunnel junction (STJ)-based detector
      2. Quantum-dot field-effect transistor-based detector
      3. Superconducting nanowire-based single-photon detector
      4. Superconducting transition edge sensor
      5. Visible light photon counter
      6. Other photon-number-resolving detectors
    4. Unique approaches to single-photon detectors
    5. Electronics for single-photon detectors
  4. APPLICATION CASE STUDY: QUANTUM COMMUNICATION
  5. SUMMARY

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KEYWORDS and PACS

Keywords

infrared detectors, photodetectors, quantum communication, ultraviolet detectors

PACS

  • 03.67.Hk

    Quantum communication

  • 85.60.Gz

    Photodetectors (including infrared and CCD detectors)

ARTICLE DATA

Digital Object Identifier
http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3610677

PUBLICATION DATA

ISSN

0034-6748 (print)  
1089-7623 (online)

Publisher

$abstract.society.value is a Member of CrossRef American Institute of Physics

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Figures (9) Tables (2)

Figures (click on thumbnails to view enlargements)

FIG.1
Papers published each year. ISI Web of Knowledge search terms are shown.

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FIG.2
Single emitter system excited by some means then emits a single photon.

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FIG.3
Ensemble-based emitter scheme (a). Laser pulses first prepare the system in state |u〉, then probabilistically create a single collective excitation (b). The successful excitation is heralded by the detection of a single emitted photon at the |e〉 → |g〉 transition. Then a strong read pulse deterministically pumps the single excitation back to its original state generating just a single photon at the |e〉 → |u〉 transition.

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FIG.4
(a) Parametric downconversion of one input photon converted to two output photons. (Conversion efficiencies of a pump photon into a photon pair can be 10−6 (Ref. 213), so care must be taken to reject the bulk of the pump light). Momentum conservation governs the emission angles. While a noncollinear emission geometry is shown, a collinear geometry can and often is used by orienting the optic axis angle appropriately. (b) The conversion process is nonresonant so that a wide range of wavelengths can be created subject only to energy and momentum conservation.

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FIG.5
Four-wave mixing, where two input photons are converted to two output photons. Equal input energy pump photons are shown creating a nondegenerate pair of output photons, but some applications make use of the reverse process with nondegenerate pump photons producing degenerate output photons. Also because of the nonlinearity is typically lower than in PDC a longer interaction length is required, such as can be obtained in an optical fiber. Such a medium necessarily requires a collinear geometry although higher nonlinearity media such as atomic vapor can overcome this restriction.

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FIG.6
A photomultiplier, the first detector able to sense a single optical photon, is shown schematically with a transmissive photocathode and just 3 dynodes. The photocathode may be designed to have the photoelectrons emitted from its front or back surface and typically 10 dynodes are used.

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FIG.7
A single-photon avalanche photodiode is shown with distinct regions for the photo-absorption and carrier multiplication processes. The voltage is applied to accelerate the electrons toward the multiplication region. A front-illuminated geometry with an antireflection (AR) coating to improve efficiency is illustrated, but back-illuminated designs are also used.

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FIG.8
A section of a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector is shown with a bias current just below the critical current density that would drive the wire normal. (a) An incoming photon creates a small normal region within the nanowire. (b) The superconducting current is expelled from the normal region, increasing the current density in the adjacent areas of the nanowire. (c) That increase in current density is enough to drive those adjacent regions normal, which in turn results in a measurable voltage drop across the detector.

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FIG.9
Principle of operation of a visible light photon counter (VLPC). A single photon absorbed in the intrinsic region creates an electron-hole pair. The applied voltage accelerates the electron towards the transparent contact on the left, and accelerates the hole to the right. The gain region is doped with As impurities. Holes accelerated into the gain region impact-ionize these impurities, exciting donor electrons into the conduction band. These electrons are accelerated towards the transparent contact and create additional impact ionization events, resulting in avalanche multiplication (Ref. 264).

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Tables

Table I. Comparison of single-photon sources. Sources are characterized as probabilistic (P) or deterministic (D) (remembering the caveat that a deterministic source can in practice lose some or much of its determinism and operate in a more probabilistic fashion due to issues such as low emission efficiency). The wavelength range possible for each method is given, along with how far an individual source can be tuned. The inherent bandwidth indicates the typical spectral width of the emitted photons. The emission efficiency is the overall extraction efficiency of the source from generation of the photons to emission of the light, including any spectral filtering that would be necessary for typical quantum-information applications (the efficiency of a detector used to measure the source is not included). Note that for two-photon sources g(2)(0) typically increases as the generation rate increases, so the values here are for the lower end of the generation ranges.

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Table II. Comparison of single-photon detectors based on a table from Ref. 309 using a figure of merit given by the ratio of the detection efficiency to the product of the dark-count rate and the time resolution (assumed to be the timing jitter), η/(Dδt). Maximum count rate is a rough estimate from the the detector's output pulse width or count rate that yields 100% dead time. The photon-number-resolving (PNR) capability is defined here as: none) for devices that are typically operated as a photon or no photon device, some) for devices that are made from multiple detectors that individually have no PNR capability and thus are limited in the photon number that can be resolved to the number of individual detectors, and full) for devices whose output is inherently proportional to the number of photons even if their proportional response ultimately saturates at high photon levels.

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