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Aug 2007

Volume 78, Issue 8, Articles (08xxxx)

Issue Cover Spotlight Figure

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 081101 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2754076 (8 pages)

Yang Gan
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Invited Review Article: A review of techniques for attaching micro- and nanoparticles to a probe’s tip for surface force and near-field optical measurements

Yang Gan

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 081101 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2754076 (8 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 6 August 2007

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Cantilevers with single micro- or nanoparticle probes have been widely used for atomic force microscopy surface force measurements and apertureless scanning near-field optical microscopy applications. In this article, I critically review the particle attachment and modification techniques currently available, to help researchers choose the appropriate techniques for specific applications.
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07.79.Fc Near-field scanning optical microscopes
07.79.Lh Atomic force microscopes
07.10.Cm Micromechanical devices and systems
01.30.Rr Surveys and tutorial papers; resource letters
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In situ microfluidic flow rate measurement based on near-field heterodyne grating method

Kenji Katayama, Hisato Uchimura, Hitomi Sakakibara, Yoshikuni Kikutani, and Takehiko Kitamori

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083101 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2766826 (7 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 13 August 2007

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The near-field heterodyne grating (NF-HDG) method was applied to flow rate measurements in a microtube. The NF-HDG method is a newly developed optical technique based on photothermal effects. In this technique, pump light is shone on a transmission grating in front of a fluid channel and the inside liquid is heated with a pattern of the grating due to the Talbot effect. Another probe light is similarly shone on the same place as the pump light, and the diffraction by the transmission grating (reference) and the diffraction by the temporally generated thermal grating inside the fluid channel (signal) are mixed and detected (heterodyne detection). Theoretical analysis reveals that the dependence of the heterodyne signal intensity on the flow rate originates from the change in the heterodyne phase difference between the signal and reference, and the experimentally obtained calibration curves can be fitted with the theoretically predicted function. Furthermore, the optical setup was optimized based on the theoretical analysis of the Talbot effect. Flow rates of the order of nl/min were quantitatively measured, and the detection limit of the flow rate was 17 nl/min.
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47.80.-v Instrumentation and measurement methods in fluid dynamics

Demonstration of high-performance compact magnetic shields for chip-scale atomic devices

E. A. Donley, E. Hodby, L. Hollberg, and J. Kitching

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083102 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2767533 (7 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 14 August 2007

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We have designed and tested a set of five miniature nested magnetic shields constructed of high-permeability material, with external volumes for the individual shielding layers ranging from 0.01 to 2.5 cm3. We present measurements of the longitudinal and transverse shielding factors (the ratio of external to internal magnetic field) of both individual shields and combinations of up to three layers. The largest shielding factor measured was 6×106 for a nested set of three shields, and from our results we predict a shielding factor of up to 1×1013 when all five shields are used. Two different techniques were used to measure the internal field: a chip-scale atomic magnetometer and a commercially available magnetoresistive sensor. Measurements with the two methods were in good agreement.
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41.20.Gz Magnetostatics; magnetic shielding, magnetic induction, boundary-value problems

Development of a stable source of atomic oxygen with a pulsed high-voltage discharge and its application to crossed-beam reactions

I-Chung Lu, Wen-Jian Huang, Chanchal Chaudhuri, Wei-Kan Chen, and Shih-Huang Lee

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083103 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2772090 (5 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 20 August 2007

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To investigate the reactions of oxygen atoms with ethene and silane in a crossed-beam condition, we developed a stable, highly intense, and short-pulsed source of atomic oxygen with a transient high-voltage discharge. Mixtures of O2 and He served as discharge media. Utilizing a crossed molecular-beam apparatus and direct vacuum-ultraviolet ionization, we measured the temporal profiles of oxygen atoms and the time-of-flight spectra of reaction products. With O2 3% seeded in He as a discharge medium, oxygen atoms might have a full width as small as 13.5 μs at half maximum at a location 193 mm downstream from the discharge region. Most population of oxygen atoms is in the ground state 3P but some in the first excited state 1D, depending on the concentration of precursor O2. This discharge device analogously generates carbon, nitrogen, and fluorine atoms from precursors CO, N2, and F2, respectively.
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82.30.Cf Atom and radical reactions; chain reactions; molecule-molecule reactions
82.80.Dx Analytical methods involving electronic spectroscopy

Combining high mass resolution and velocity imaging in a time-of-flight ion spectrometer using pulsed fields and an electrostatic lens

G. Prümper, H. Fukuzawa, T. Lischke, and K. Ueda

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083104 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2774823 (5 pages) | Cited 17 times

Online Publication Date: 23 August 2007

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We describe a momentum resolving time-of-flight ion mass spectrometer that combines a high mass resolution, a velocity focusing condition for improved momentum resolution, and field-free conditions in the source region for high resolution electron detection. It is used in electron-ion coincidence experiments to record multiple ionic fragments produced in breakup reactions of small to medium sized molecules, such as F3SiCH2CH2Si(CH3)3. These breakup reactions are caused by soft x rays or intense laser fields. The ion spectrometer uses pulsed extraction fields, an electrostatic lens, and a delay line detector to resolve the position. Additionally, we describe a simple analytical method for calculating the momentum from the measured hit position and the time of flight of the ions.
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07.81.+a Electron and ion spectrometers
07.75.+h Mass spectrometers
29.30.-h Spectrometers and spectroscopic techniques
41.85.Ne Electrostatic lenses, septa

Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy with a femtosecond high harmonic light source using a two-dimensional imaging electron analyzer

S. Mathias, L. Miaja-Avila, M. M. Murnane, H. Kapteyn, M. Aeschlimann, and M. Bauer

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083105 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2773783 (8 pages) | Cited 10 times

Online Publication Date: 23 August 2007

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An experimental setup for time- and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy using a femtosecond 1 kHz high harmonic light source and a two-dimensional electron analyzer for parallel energy and momentum detection is presented. A selection of the 27th harmonic (41.85 eV) from the harmonic spectrum of the light source is achieved with a multilayer Mo/Si double mirror monochromator. The extinction efficiency of the monochromator in selecting this harmonic is shown to be better than 7:1, while the transmitted bandwidth of the selected harmonic is capable of supporting temporal pulse widths as short as 3 fs. The recorded E(k) photoelectron spectrum from a Cu(111) surface demonstrates an angular resolution of better than 0.6° ( = 0.03 Å−1 at Ekin,e = 36 eV). Used in a pump-probe configuration, the described experimental setup represents a powerful experimental tool for studying the femtosecond dynamics of ultrafast surface processes in real time.

Piezoresistor-equipped fluorescence-based cantilever probe for near-field scanning

Tetsuo Kan, Kiyoshi Matsumoto, and Isao Shimoyama

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083106 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2774824 (6 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 23 August 2007

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Scanning near-field optical microscopes (SNOMs) with fluorescence-based probes are promising tools for evaluating the optical characteristics of nanoaperture devices used for biological investigations, and this article reports on the development of a microfabricated fluorescence-based SNOM probe with a piezoresistor. The piezoresistor was built into a two-legged root of a 160-μm-long cantilever. To improve the displacement sensitivity of the cantilever, the piezoresistor’s doped area was shallowly formed on the cantilever surface. A fluorescent bead, 500 nm in diameter, was attached to the bottom of the cantilever end as a light-intensity-sensitive material in the visible-light range. The surface of the scanned sample was simply detected by the probe’s end being displaced by contact with the sample. Measuring displacements piezoresistively is advantageous because it eliminates the noise arising from the use of the optical-lever method and is free of any disturbance in the absorption or the emission spectrum of the fluorescent material at the probe tip. The displacement sensitivity was estimated to be 6.1×10−6 nm−1, and the minimum measurable displacement was small enough for near-field measurement. This probe enabled clear scanning images of the light field near a 300×300 nm2 aperture to be obtained in the near-field region where the tip-sample distance is much shorter than the light wavelength. This scanning result indicates that the piezoresistive way of tip-sample distance regulation is effective for characterizing nanoaperture optical devices.
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07.79.Fc Near-field scanning optical microscopes
85.60.-q Optoelectronic devices
84.32.Ff Conductors, resistors (including thermistors, varistors, and photoresistors)

Laser interferometric system for six-axis motion measurement

Zhipeng Zhang and Chia-Hsiang Menq

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083107 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2776011 (8 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 27 August 2007

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This article presents the development of a precision laser interferometric system, which is designed to achieve six-axis motion measurement for real-time applications. By combining the advantage of the interferometer with a retroreflector and that of the interferometer with a plane mirror reflector, the system is capable of simultaneously measuring large transverse motions along and large rotational motions about three orthogonal axes. Based on optical path analysis along with the designed kinematics of the system, a closed form relationship between the six-axis motion parameters of the object being measured and the readings of the six laser interferometers is established. It can be employed as a real-time motion sensor for various six-axis motion control stages. A prototype is implemented and integrated with a six-axis magnetic levitation stage to illustrate its resolution and measurement range.
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07.60.Ly Interferometers
06.30.Bp Spatial dimensions (e.g., position, lengths, volume, angles, and displacements)
07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing

Generation of high-power laser light with Gigahertz splitting

B. E. Unks, N. A. Proite, and D. D. Yavuz

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083108 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2776971 (4 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 28 August 2007

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We demonstrate the generation of two high-power laser beams whose frequencies are separated by the ground state hyperfine transition frequency in 87Rb. The system uses a single master diode laser appropriately shifted by high frequency acousto-optic modulators and amplified by semiconductor tapered amplifiers. This produces two 1 W laser beams with a frequency spacing of 6.834 GHz and a relative frequency stability of 1 Hz. We discuss possible applications of this apparatus, including electromagnetically induced transparencylike effects and ultrafast qubit rotations.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
42.55.Px Semiconductor lasers; laser diodes
42.79.Hp Optical processors, correlators, and modulators
42.65.-k Nonlinear optics

Commissioning and performance of the variable line spacing plane grating monochromator beamline at the Canadian Light Source

Y. F. Hu, L. Zuin, G. Wright, R. Igarashi, M. McKibben, T. Wilson, S. Y. Chen, T. Johnson, D. Maxwell, B. W. Yates, T. K. Sham, and R. Reininger

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083109 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2778613 (5 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 30 August 2007

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The variable line spacing plane grating monochromator beamline at the Canadian Light Source (CLS) employs three grazing incidence variable line spacing gratings to cover a photon energy range of 5–250 eV. It uses a 185 mm period length planar permanent magnet insertion device as the photon source, sharing a straight section with another soft x-ray beamline at the CLS. The commissioning and performance of the beamline is reported. The high resolution photoabsorption spectra of Ar and PF5 gases are reported. A resolving power of over 40 000 for photons in the low energy region and >10 000 for a wider energy range (8–200 eV) can be achieved. A photon flux of up to 2×1012 photons/s per 100 mA with slit settings of 50 μm has been measured.
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07.85.Fv X- and γ-ray sources, mirrors, gratings, and detectors
41.50.+h X-ray beams and x-ray optics
42.72.Bj Visible and ultraviolet sources
42.79.Dj Gratings
41.85.Si Particle beam collimators, monochromators

System for in situ studies of atmospheric corrosion of metal films using soft x-ray spectroscopy and quartz crystal microbalance

J. Forsberg, L.-C. Duda, A. Olsson, T. Schmitt, J. Andersson, J. Nordgren, J. Hedberg, C. Leygraf, T. Aastrup, D. Wallinder, and J.-H. Guo

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083110 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2777391 (7 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 31 August 2007

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We present a versatile chamber (“atmospheric corrosion cell”) for soft x-ray absorption/emission spectroscopy of metal surfaces in a corrosive atmosphere allowing novel in situ electronic structure studies. Synchrotron x rays passing through a thin window separating the corrosion cell interior from a beamline vacuum chamber probe a metal film deposited on a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) or on the inside of the window. We present some initial results on chloride induced corrosion of iron surfaces in humidified synthetic air. By simultaneous recording of QCM signal and soft x-ray emission from the corroding sample, correlation between mass changes and variations in spectral features is facilitated.
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81.65.-b Surface treatments
78.70.Dm X-ray absorption spectra
78.70.En X-ray emission spectra and fluorescence
71.20.Gj Other metals and alloys
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Novel method for characterizing relativistic electron beams in a harsh laser-plasma environment

B. Hidding, G. Pretzler, M. Clever, F. Brandl, F. Zamponi, A. Lübcke, T. Kämpfer, I. Uschmann, E. Förster, U. Schramm, R. Sauerbrey, E. Kroupp, L. Veisz, K. Schmid, S. Benavides, et al.

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083301 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2775668 (8 pages) | Cited 14 times

Online Publication Date: 23 August 2007

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Particle pulses generated by laser-plasma interaction are characterized by ultrashort duration, high particle density, and sometimes a very strong accompanying electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Therefore, beam diagnostics different from those known from classical particle accelerators such as synchrotrons or linacs are required. Easy to use single-shot techniques are favored, which must be insensitive towards the EMP and associated stray light of all frequencies, taking into account the comparably low repetition rates and which, at the same time, allow for usage in very space-limited environments. Various measurement techniques are discussed here, and a space-saving method to determine several important properties of laser-generated electron bunches simultaneously is presented. The method is based on experimental results of electron-sensitive imaging plate stacks and combines these with Monte Carlo-type ray-tracing calculations, yielding a comprehensive picture of the properties of particle beams. The total charge, the energy spectrum, and the divergence can be derived simultaneously for a single bunch.
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52.38.Kd Laser-plasma acceleration of electrons and ions
41.75.Jv Laser-driven acceleration
52.35.Mw Nonlinear phenomena: waves, wave propagation, and other interactions (including parametric effects, mode coupling, ponderomotive effects, etc.)

Electrostatic ion trap and Fourier transform measurements for high-resolution mass spectrometry

K. G. Bhushan, S. C. Gadkari, J. V. Yakhmi, and V. C. Sahni

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083302 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2777195 (5 pages) | Cited 11 times

Online Publication Date: 27 August 2007

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We report on the development of an electrostatic ion trap for high-resolution mass spectrometry. The trap works on purely electrostatic fields and hence trapping and storing of ions is not mass restrictive, unlike other techniques based on Penning, Paul, or radio frequency quadrupole ion traps. It allows simultaneous trapping and studying of multiple mass species over a large mass range. Mass spectra were recorded in “dispersive” and “self-bunching” modes of ions. Storage lifetimes of about 100 ms and mass resolving power of about 20 000 could be achieved from the fifth harmonic Fourier transform spectrum of Xe ions recorded in the self-bunching mode.
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07.75.+h Mass spectrometers

Application of accelerators for the research and development of scintillators

Kengo Shibuya, Masanori Koshimizu, Keisuke Asai, Yusa Muroya, Yosuke Katsumura, Naoko Inadama, Eiji Yoshida, Fumihiko Nishikido, Taiga Yamaya, and Hideo Murayama

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083303 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2777152 (7 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 29 August 2007

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We introduce experimental systems which use accelerators to evaluate scintillation properties such as scintillation intensity, wavelength, and lifetime. A single crystal of good optical quality is often unavailable during early stages in the research and development (R&D) of new scintillator materials. Because of their beams’ high excitation power and/or low penetration depth, accelerators facilitate estimation of the properties of early samples which may only be available as powders, thin films, and very small crystals. We constructed a scintillation spectrum measurement system that uses a Van de Graaff accelerator and an optical multichannel analyzer to estimate the relative scintillation intensity. In addition, we constructed a scintillation time profile measurement system that uses an electron linear accelerator and a femtosecond streak camera or a microchannel plate photomultiplier tube followed by a digital oscilloscope to determine the scintillation lifetimes. The time resolution is approximately 10 ps. The scintillation spectra or time profiles can be obtained in a significantly shorter acquisition time in comparison with that required by conventional measuring systems. The advantages of the systems described in this study can significantly promote the R&D of novel scintillator materials.
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Short pulse laser train for laser plasma interaction experiments

J. L. Kline, T. Shimada, R. P. Johnson, D. S. Montgomery, B. M. Hegelich, D. M. Esquibel, K. A. Flippo, R. P. Gonzales, T. R. Hurry, and S. L. Reid

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083501 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2760687 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 13 August 2007

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A multiframe, high-time resolution pump-probe diagnostic consisting of a consecutive train of ultrashort laser pulses ( ∼ ps) has been developed for use with a chirped pulse amplification (CPA) system. A system of high quality windows is used to create a series of 1054 nm picosecond-laser pulses which are injected into the CPA system before the pulse stretcher and amplifiers. By adding or removing windows in the pulse train forming optics, the number of pulses can be varied. By varying the distance and thickness of the respective optical elements, the time in between the pulses, i.e., the time in between frames, can be set. In our example application, the CPA pulse train is converted to 527 nm using a KDP crystal and focused into a preformed plasma and the reflected laser light due to stimulated Raman scattering is measured. Each pulse samples different plasma conditions as the plasma evolves in time, producing more data on each laser shot than with a single short pulse probe. This novel technique could potentially be implemented to obtain multiple high-time resolution measurements of the dynamics of physical processes over hundreds of picoseconds or even nanoseconds with picosecond resolution on a single shot.
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52.50.Jm Plasma production and heating by laser beams (laser-foil, laser-cluster, etc.)
42.60.Fc Modulation, tuning, and mode locking
52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements
42.70.Mp Nonlinear optical crystals
52.38.Bv Rayleigh scattering; stimulated Brillouin and Raman scattering

Direct measurement of density oscillation induced by a radio-frequency wave

T. Yamada, A. Ejiri, Y. Shimada, T. Oosako, J. Tsujimura, Y. Takase, and H. Kasahara

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083502 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2769351 (5 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 15 August 2007

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An O-mode reflectometer at a frequency of 25.85 GHz was applied to plasmas heated by the high harmonic fast wave (21 MHz) in the TST-2 spherical tokamak. An oscillation in the phase of the reflected microwave in the rf range was observed directly for the first time. In TST-2, the rf (250 kW) induced density oscillation depends mainly on the poloidal rf electric field, which is estimated to be about 0.2 kV/m rms by the reflectometer measurement. Sideband peaks separated in frequency by ion cyclotron harmonics from 21 MHz, and peaks at ion cyclotron harmonics which are suggested to be quasimodes generated by parametric decay, were detected.
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52.70.Gw Radio-frequency and microwave measurements
07.57.Kp Bolometers; infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave receivers and detectors
52.35.Fp Electrostatic waves and oscillations (e.g., ion-acoustic waves)
52.50.Qt Plasma heating by radio-frequency fields; ICR, ICP, helicons
52.55.Fa Tokamaks, spherical tokamaks
52.35.Py Macroinstabilities (hydromagnetic, e.g., kink, fire-hose, mirror, ballooning, tearing, trapped-particle, flute, Rayleigh-Taylor, etc.)

Measurement of ion energy distributions using a combined energy and mass analyzer

S. G. Walton, R. F. Fernsler, and D. Leonhardt

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083503 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2769352 (6 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 20 August 2007

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A method is described for measuring ion energy distributions using a commercially available, combined energy analyzer/mass spectrometer. The distributions were measured at an electrode located adjacent to pulsed, electron beam-generated plasmas produced in argon. The method uses energy-dependent tuning and was tested for various plasma conditions. The results indicate an improved collection efficiency of low-energy ions when compared to conventional approaches in measuring ion energy distributions.
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29.40.-n Radiation detectors
07.75.+h Mass spectrometers
52.80.-s Electric discharges
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Unique laser-scanning optical microscope for low-temperature imaging and spectroscopy

Li Zhang, Saliha Aite, and Zhonghua Yu

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083701 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2768924 (5 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 9 August 2007

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Low-temperature optical characterization of single quantum nanostructures can reveal detailed information on structure-dependent properties of these materials. We describe the development of a unique laser-scanning optical microscope capable of low-temperature single molecule/particle imaging and spectroscopy. Making use of the magnification of a microscope objective, the laser- scanning scheme of the present microscope allows for high-repeatability imaging over large sample areas. The microscope is utilized to measure the low-temperature Raman scattering spectra of individual single-walled carbon nanotubes and single molecule fluorescence spectra of conjugated polymers. The developed low-temperature microscope can be applied to study a wide array of nanomaterials at a single particle level.
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07.20.Mc Cryogenics; refrigerators, low-temperature detectors, and other low-temperature equipment
07.57.Ty Infrared spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
07.60.Pb Conventional optical microscopes

Tip-sample distance control using photothermal actuation of a small cantilever for high-speed atomic force microscopy

Hayato Yamashita, Noriyuki Kodera, Atsushi Miyagi, Takayuki Uchihashi, Daisuke Yamamoto, and Toshio Ando

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083702 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2766825 (5 pages) | Cited 25 times

Online Publication Date: 10 August 2007

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We have applied photothermal bending of a cantilever induced by an intensity-modulated infrared laser to control the tip-surface distance in atomic force microscopy. The slow response of the photothermal expansion effect is eliminated by inverse transfer function compensation. By regulating the laser power and regulating the cantilever deflection, the tip-sample distance is controlled; this enables much faster imaging than that in the conventional piezoactuator-based z scanners because of the considerably higher resonant frequency of small cantilevers. Using this control together with other devices optimized for high-speed scanning, video-rate imaging of protein molecules in liquids is achieved.
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61.05.Np Atom, molecule, and ion scattering (for structure determination only)

Characterization of pyrocarbon coated materials using laboratory based x-ray phase contrast imaging technique

Y. S. Kashyap, Tushar Roy, P. S. Sarkar, P. S. Yadav, Mayank Shukla, Amar Sinha, K. Dasgupta, and D. Sathiyamoorthy

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083703 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2772780 (6 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 20 August 2007

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In-line x-ray phase contrast is an emerging x-ray imaging technique that promises to improve the contrast in x-ray imaging process. This technique is most suited for x-ray imaging of soft materials, low atomic number elements such as carbon composite fibers, very thin coatings, etc. We have used this new emerging technique for visualization and characterization of the pyrocarbon coated materials using a combination of microfocus x-ray source and x-ray charge coupled device detector. These studies are important for characterization of coating and optimization of various process parameters during deposition. These experiments will help us to exploit the potential of this technique for studies in other areas of material science such as characterization of carbon fibered structures and detection of cracks and flaws in materials. The characterization of the imaging system and optimization of some process parameters for carbon deposition are also described in detail.
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07.85.Fv X- and γ-ray sources, mirrors, gratings, and detectors

Iterative image-based modeling and control for higher scanning probe microscope performance

G. M. Clayton and S. Devasia

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083704 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2773534 (12 pages) | Cited 4 times

Online Publication Date: 29 August 2007

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In this article, we develop an image-based approach to model and control the dynamics of scanning probe microscopes (SPMs) during high-speed operations. SPMs are key enabling tools in the experimental investigation and manipulation of nano- and subnanoscale phenomena; however, the speed at which the SPM probe can be positioned over the sample surface is limited due to adverse dynamic effects. It is noted that SPM speed can be increased using model-based control techniques. Modeling the SPM dynamics is, however, challenging because currently available sensing methods do not measure the SPM tip directly. Additionally, the resolution of currently available sensing methods is limited by noise at higher bandwidth. Our main contribution is an iterative image-based modeling method which overcomes these modeling difficulties (caused by sensing limitations). The method is applied to model an experimental scanning tunneling microscope (STM) system and to achieve high-speed imaging. Specifically, we model the STM up to a frequency of 2000 Hz (corresponds to ∼ 2/3 of the resonance frequency of our system) and achieve ∼ 1.2% error in 1 nm square images at that same frequency.
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07.79.Cz Scanning tunneling microscopes

Development of a parallel detection and processing system using a multidetector array for wave field restoration in scanning transmission electron microscopy

Masaki Taya, Takaomi Matsutani, Takashi Ikuta, Hidekazu Saito, Keiko Ogai, Yoshihito Harada, Takeo Tanaka, and Yoshizo Takai

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083705 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2778622 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 30 August 2007

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A parallel image detection and image processing system for scanning transmission electron microscopy was developed using a multidetector array consisting of a multianode photomultiplier tube arranged in an 8×8 square array. The system enables the taking of 64 images simultaneously from different scattered directions with a scanning time of 2.6 s. Using the 64 images, phase and amplitude contrast images of gold particles on an amorphous carbon thin film could be separately reconstructed by applying respective 8 shaped bandpass Fourier filters for each image and multiplying the phase and amplitude reconstructing factors.
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07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
07.05.Pj Image processing

Digital-signal-processor-based dynamic imaging system for optical tomography

Joseph M. Lasker, James M. Masciotti, Matthew Schoenecker, Christoph H. Schmitz, and Andreas H. Hielscher

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083706 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2769577 (19 pages) | Cited 8 times

Online Publication Date: 31 August 2007

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In this article, we introduce a dynamic optical tomography system that is, unlike currently available analog instrumentation, based on digital data acquisition and filtering techniques. At the core of this continuous wave instrument is a digital signal processor (DSP) that collects, collates, processes, and filters the digitized data set. The processor is also responsible for managing system timing and the imaging routines which can acquire real-time data at rates as high as 150 Hz. Many of the synchronously timed processes are controlled by a complex programable logic device that is also used in conjunction with the DSP to orchestrate data flow. The operation of the system is implemented through a comprehensive graphical user interface designed with LABVIEW software which integrates automated calibration, data acquisition, data organization, and signal postprocessing. Performance analysis demonstrates very low system noise ( ∼ 1 pW rms noise equivalent power), excellent signal precision (<0.04%–0.2%) and long term system stability (<1% over 40 min). A large dynamic range ( ∼ 190 dB) accommodates a wide scope of measurement geometries and tissue types. First experiments on tissue phantoms show that dynamic behavior is accurately captured and spatial location can be correctly tracked using this system.
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87.63.L- Visual imaging
42.30.Va Image forming and processing
87.57.R- Computer-aided diagnosis
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Suspended heated silicon platform for rapid thermal control of surface reactions with application to carbon nanotube synthesis

Lucas van Laake, Anastasios John Hart, and Alexander H. Slocum

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083901 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2760936 (9 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 3 August 2007

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Rapid continuous thermal control of chemical reactions such as those for chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth of nanotubes and nanowires cannot be studied using traditional reactors such as tube furnaces, which have large thermal masses. We present the design, modeling, and verification of a simple, low-cost reactor based on resistive heating of a suspended silicon platform. This system achieves slew rates exceeding 100 °C/s, enabling studies of rapid heating and thermal cycling. Moreover, the reaction surface is available for optical monitoring. A first-generation CVD apparatus encapsulates the heated silicon platform inside a sealed quartz tube, and initial experiments demonstrate growth of films of tangled single-wall and aligned multiwall carbon nanotubes using this system. The reactor can be straightforwardly scaled to larger or smaller substrate sizes and may be extended for a wide variety of reactions, for performing in situ reaction diagnostics, for chip-scale growth of nanostructures, and for rapid thermal processing of microelectronic and micromechanical devices.
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81.07.De Nanotubes
81.16.Be Chemical synthesis methods
85.35.Kt Nanotube devices

New reactor dedicated to in operando studies of model catalysts by means of surface x-ray diffraction and grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering

M.-C. Saint-Lager, A. Bailly, P. Dolle, R. Baudoing-Savois, P. Taunier, S. Garaudée, S. Cuccaro, S. Douillet, O. Geaymond, G. Perroux, O. Tissot, J.-S. Micha, O. Ulrich, and F. Rieutord

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 083902 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2766821 (9 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 9 August 2007

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A new experimental setup has been developed to enable in situ studies of catalyst surfaces during chemical reactions by means of surface x-ray diffraction (SXRD) and grazing incidence small angle x-ray scattering. The x-ray reactor chamber was designed for both ultrahigh-vacuum (UHV) and reactive gas environments. A laser beam heating of the sample was implemented; the sample temperature reaches 1100 K in UHV and 600 K in the presence of reactive gases. The reactor equipment allows dynamical observations of the surface with various, perfectly mixed gases at controlled partial pressures. It can run in two modes: as a bath reactor in the pressure range of 1–1000 mbars and as a continuous flow cell for pressure lower than 10−3 mbar. The reactor is connected to an UHV preparation chamber also equipped with low energy electron diffraction and Auger spectroscopy. This setup is thus perfectly well suited to extend in situ studies to more complex surfaces, such as epitaxial films or supported nanoparticles. It offers the possibility to follow the chemically induced changes of the morphology, the structure, the composition, and growth processes of the model catalyst surface during exposure to reactive gases. As an example the Pd8Ni92(110) surface structure was followed by SXRD under a few millibars of hydrogen and during butadiene hydrogenation while the reaction was monitored by quadrupole mass spectrometry. This experiment evidenced the great sensitivity of the diffracted intensity to the subtle interaction between the surface atoms and the gas molecules.
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61.05.cp X-ray diffraction
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