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Sep 1985

Volume 56, Issue 9, pp. 1691-1841

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Fast special purpose computer for Monte Carlo simulations in statistical physics

J. H. Condon and A. T. Ogielski

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1691 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138125 (6 pages) | Cited 18 times

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Design, hardware, and operating software of a special purpose computer built for the Monte Carlo simulations of a wide class of random Ising spin systems is described. The machine is quite versatile, easy to operate, and executes programs written in a high level C language. It is a 32‐bit bus oriented system, with a very fast, dedicated Monte Carlo processor and a general purpose single‐board computer sharing the 16‐Mbyte address space. The former processor executes the basic Monte Carlo heat bath algorithm, and the latter performs required physical ‘‘measurements’’ on spin configurations and handles communication with a UNIX host machine. The host computer is used to compile and download programs and to receive small quantities of reduced data for permanent storage and further analysis.
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89.20.Ff Computer science and technology
02.70.-c Computational techniques; simulations
05.50.+q Lattice theory and statistics (Ising, Potts, etc.)

H− and electron production in a magnetic multipole source

A. J. T. Holmes, G. Dammertz, and T. S. Green

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1697 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138126 (6 pages) | Cited 24 times

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An investigation has been made of the yield of H− ions and electrons extracted from a magnetic multipole, or bucket, ion source as a function of the parameters of the source. Under optimum conditions the H− current density attains a value equal to half of the positive ion current density (H+3) measured at the extraction plane. The experimental results indicate that, while the H− current rises linearly with arc current, the extracted electron current shows a quadratic dependence. There is also a strong dependence of the electron current on the magnetic field applied across the extraction aperture, and source filling pressure. Probe measurements within the plasma volume show considerable axial variation of the fluxes of electrons, H− ions and H+3 ions.
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52.50.Dg Plasma sources
29.25.Lg Ion sources: polarized
29.25.Ni Ion sources: positive and negative

Fast multichannel heterodyne radiometer for electron cyclotron emission measurement on stellarator W VII‐A

H. J. Hartfuss and M. Tutter

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1703 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138127 (3 pages) | Cited 11 times

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An eight‐channel radiometer for simultaneous measurement of electron temperatures at different radii via electron cyclotron emission is described. It is divided into two parts, the interchangeable front end and the filter section. By replacing the front end, both first and second‐harmonic electron cyclotron emission measurements are possible in the range of 50–180 GHz. The instrument is absolutely calibrated with an accuracy estimated to be within ±10%. The spatial resolution ΔR/R is of the order 10−3, the temporal resolution 20 μs.
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52.70.Gw Radio-frequency and microwave measurements
52.55.Jd Magnetic mirrors, gas dynamic traps
07.57.Kp Bolometers; infrared, submillimeter wave, microwave, and radiowave receivers and detectors

Measurement of small strains in a noisy environment

M. S. Tillack, M. S. Kazimi, and L. M. Lidsky

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1706 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138128 (6 pages)

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A simple technique is demonstrated for measuring strains in an electromagnetically noisy environment using electrical strain gauges. For applications in which strains are produced electromagnetically in current‐carrying structures, the noise signal can be much larger than the strain signal. Furthermore, the noise signal is at precisely the same frequency as the strain signal, making standard methods of synchronous signal detection difficult. This problem has been surmounted by modulating the detection circuit sensitivity. Bridge circuit modulation has been shown to effectively decouple the strain signal from the noise, even at very low strain levels of ∼10−8 m/m.
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07.10.-h Mechanical instruments and equipment
07.50.-e Electrical and electronic instruments and components
46.80.+j Measurement methods and techniques in continuum mechanics of solids

Velocity distribution of supersonic nozzle beams

H. Haberland, U. Buck, and M. Tolle

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1712 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138129 (5 pages) | Cited 42 times

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A problem concerning the velocity distribution standardly assumed in molecular beams is investigated. It is shown, theoretically and experimentally, that the sum of all energy contributions based on the standard assumed velocity distribution function is different from that based on pure thermodynamic energy considerations.
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07.77.-n Atomic, molecular, and charged-particle sources and detectors
47.60.Kz Flows and jets through nozzles
47.40.Ki Supersonic and hypersonic flows
37.20.+j Atomic and molecular beam sources and techniques

Large‐area lanthanum hexaboride electron emitter

D. M. Goebel, Y. Hirooka, and T. A. Sketchley

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1717 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138130 (6 pages) | Cited 28 times

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A large‐area cathode assembly which is capable of continuous, high‐current electron emission is described. The cathode utilizes an indirectly heated lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6) disk as the thermionic electron emitter. The LaB6 cathode emits over 600 A of electrons at an average of 20 A/cm2 continuously with no observable lifetime limits to date after about 400 h of operation in a plasma discharge. Proper clasping of the LaB6 disk is required to avoid impurity production from chemical reactions with the holder and to provide adequate support if the disk fractures during rapid thermal cycling. Modification of the LaB6 surface composition due to preferential sputtering of boron by hydrogen and argon ions in the plasma discharge has been observed. The surface appearance is consistent with the formation of LaB4 as a result of boron depletion. The electron emission capability of the cathode is not significantly altered by the surface change. This surface modification by preferential sputtering is not observed in hollow cathodes where the ion energy from the cathode sheath voltage is typically less than 50 V. The electron emission by the cathode has not been affected by exposure to both air and water during operation. Utilizing thick disks of this intermediate temperature cathode material results in reliable, high‐current, long‐lifetime electron emitter assemblies.
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79.40.+z Thermionic emission
52.80.-s Electric discharges
52.40.Hf Plasma-material interactions; boundary layer effects

Subnanosecond bunching of a positron beam

W. S. Crane and A. P. Mills

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1723 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138131 (4 pages) | Cited 11 times

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A simple scheme for bunching spatially distributed charged particles is described. In the present application, sub‐nanosecond width pulses are obtained from a milliliter volume containing slow (≤2 eV) positrons. The utility of this technique is demonstrated by a qualitative observation of the temperature dependance of the surface state lifetime for positrons on aluminum.
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07.77.-n Atomic, molecular, and charged-particle sources and detectors
29.27.Eg Beam handling; beam transport
78.70.Bj Positron annihilation

Finite difference computer simulation of two diverging electrostatic analyzers: The soft particle spectrometer and the spectrographic particle imager

M. J. Sablik, J. D. Winningham, and V. A. Blevins

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1727 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138132 (7 pages) | Cited 4 times

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We have completed a finite difference computer simulation of two diverging electrostatic analyzers. In both analyzers, the deflecting plates are cylindrical surfaces which flare out from each other like two arms of a hyperbola. The analyzers are the soft particle spectrometer (SPS) and the spectrographic particle imager (SPI), which correspond, respectively, to an energy spectrometer and an energy spectrograph. The simulation consists of two steps: (1) a finite difference computation of the electrostatic potential field inside the instrument; and (2) a ray‐tracing computation in which many particles are ray traced through the instrument and statistics are gathered on the particles that make it to the collecting region. In both cases, the simulation is two‐dimensional, restricted to the central plane of the instrument. This limitation turns out to be unimportant because the statistics acquired during simulation agree well with experimentally acquired statistics for each instrument. In the case of SPI, the computer simulation has been used to provide information on how variation of geometric parameters affects the quantities that describe a good spectrograph.
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07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
93.85.-q Instruments and techniques for geophysical research: Exploration geophysics

High‐voltage trigger pulser for split dc discharges in waveguide lasers

F. J. Nedvidek, Z. Kucerovsky, and E. Brannen

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1734 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138133 (2 pages)

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A device to initialize discharges in multisection waveguide lasers is described.High‐voltage pulses from the trigger circuit ionize the laser mixture via electrodes attached to the outside wall of the waveguide. cw discharges have been started in CO2 waveguide laser sections for various gas mixtures at operating pressures of up to 450 Torr.
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42.55.Lt Gas lasers including excimer and metal-vapor lasers
52.80.Vp Discharge in vacuum
84.70.+p High-current and high-voltage technology: power systems; power transmission lines and cables
84.30.Sk Pulse and digital circuits

A technique for obtaining tunable, subnanosecond (≤300 ps) pulses from a commercial dye laser

O. L. Bourne, A. J. Alcock, and Y. S. Huo

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1736 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138134 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

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A simple technique to convert a commercial dye laser into a tunable source of subnanosecond (≤300 ps) pulses with a linewidth of ∼10 GHz (0.01 nm) is described. The technique used is a combination of stimulated Brillouin scattering and optical breakdown. The effectiveness of the system as a spectroscopic tool was demonstrated by using it to record a partial absorption spectrum of iodine.
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42.60.By Design of specific laser systems
42.55.Mv Dye lasers
07.57.Ty Infrared spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers
42.65.Dr Stimulated Raman scattering; CARS
42.65.Es Stimulated Brillouin and Rayleigh scattering
42.65.Ky Frequency conversion; harmonic generation, including higher-order harmonic generation

Dual‐beam laser deflection sensor

Janusz Pawliszyn, Michael F. Weber, and Michael J. Dignam

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1740 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138135 (4 pages) | Cited 6 times

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A compact, dual‐beam laser deflection system was built, mainly from commercially available parts. While the detector and electronics yielded noise levels at the theoretical level for the detector, pointing instability of the laser led to an increase in noise by a factor of about 103. The dual‐beam arrangement gave only a factor of about 4 improvement over the single‐beam mode due to alignment and drift problems. Further improvement requires a feedback system to minimize signal arising from common‐mode beam displacements.
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42.60.Jf Beam characteristics: profile, intensity, and power; spatial pattern formation
07.07.Df Sensors (chemical, optical, electrical, movement, gas, etc.); remote sensing
07.60.-j Optical instruments and equipment
42.79.Fm Reflectors, beam splitters, and deflectors
42.79.Ls Scanners, image intensifiers, and image converters

Multikilohertz Pockels cell driver

P. Bado and M. Bouvier

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1744 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138086 (2 pages) | Cited 5 times

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We have developed a Pockels driver, based on field‐effect transistors and a microwave tube. This system, capable of generating double voltage steps, operates reliably at repetition rates as high as 10 kHz.
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28.52.-s Fusion reactors
52.58.-c Other confinement methods

Two‐detector ellipsometer

R. M. A. Azzam

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1746 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138087 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

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An ellipsometer with two photodetectors and no other optical elements is described. In general, each detector has a partially specularly obliquely reflecting surface and generates an electrical signal proportional to the fraction of radiation it absorbs. It is not essential (but desirable) that the two detectors absorb all of the incident radiation. The output signals of the two detectors, with parallel or nonparallel surfaces, are enough to determine the degree of linear polarization P of incident light with respect to one set of transverse orthogonal axes. If the assembly of two parallel detectors is rotated around the light beam by an angle (of 45°), a new degree of linear polarization P′ is measured. From P and P′ the (generally elliptic) polarization state of incident totally polarized light can be completely determined, except for handedness. A calibration procedure for this two‐detector ellipsometer (TDE) is given.
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07.60.Fs Polarimeters and ellipsometers

Registration, storage, and processing of Fabry–Perot ring spectra by a diode matrix combined with a microcomputer

M. Hörl, R. Boes, H. F. Döbele, and M. Röwekamp

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1749 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138088 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

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A combination of a 32×32‐element silicon‐diode matrix and an Apple II computer is used to record and analyze Fabry–Perot interference ring patterns. The main advantage over conventional methods consists in the possibility of selecting the spectral resolution after registration and in the absence of alignment problems. Application of an image converter tube with VUV transmitting window in front of the matrix extends the applicability of the device to UV and VUV spectra.
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07.60.Ly Interferometers
07.05.Hd Data acquisition: hardware and software
07.05.Kf Data analysis: algorithms and implementation; data management
07.05.Rm Data presentation and visualization: algorithms and implementation
07.05.Bx Computer systems: hardware, operating systems, computer languages, and utilities

Improved timing resolution using small side‐on photomultipliers in single photon counting

Silvio Canonica, Jörg Forrer, and Urs P. Wild

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1754 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138089 (5 pages) | Cited 16 times

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The time‐resolution capabilities of two 28‐mm‐diam side‐on photomultiplier tubes, Hamamatsu R928 and RCA 931‐A, were studied by point illumination of the photocathode surface with the attenuated beam of a synchronously pumped dye laser (10‐ps pulse width). Using the time‐correlated single photon counting technique, an apparatus response of 112 ps FWHM was obtained. Contour maps giving the time shift and the width of the response were constructed as a function of the point of illumination of the photocathode surface. These data permit selection of the optimized photocathode region to be illuminated during fluorescence decay measurements.
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85.60.Ha Photomultipliers; phototubes and photocathodes
07.60.Dq Photometers, radiometers, and colorimeters
85.60.Dw Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors

Microwave Fourier‐transform spectrometer for the entire K band for the investigation of rotational spectra of molecules in the gas phase

W. Stahl, G. Bestmann, H. Dreizler, U. Andresen, and R. Schwarz

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1759 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138090 (4 pages) | Cited 8 times

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We present the experimental set up of a microwave Fourier‐transform spectrometer for the entire K band from 18 to 26.4 GHz. It is hereby shown that this type of spectroscopy is achieved above 18 GHz. Advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The performance is illustrated by the recordings of rotational transitions of various molecules.
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07.77.-n Atomic, molecular, and charged-particle sources and detectors
37.20.+j Atomic and molecular beam sources and techniques
07.57.Ty Infrared spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
07.60.Rd Visible and ultraviolet spectrometers
82.80.Dx Analytical methods involving electronic spectroscopy
82.80.Ej X-ray, Mössbauer, and other γ-ray spectroscopic analysis methods

Very‐low‐noise amplifier for low‐temperature pulsed NMR experiments

D. Bloyet, J. Lepaisant, and E. Varoquaux

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1763 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138091 (9 pages) | Cited 6 times

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We describe the design, schematics, and performances of a low‐noise preamplifier for pulsed nuclear‐magnetic‐resonance (NMR) experiments in the range 0.1–1 MHz with a noiseless (cooled below liquid‐helium temperature) pickup coil. This preamplifier operates at room temperature and exhibits an order‐of‐magnitude improvement in noise power per unit bandwidth over previously used preamplifiers. All significant contributions to the noise are carefully identified and a detailed analysis of the noise performance of a cascode differential pair of JFETs is given. Application to very‐low‐temperature thermometry by NMR in pure platinum powder is discussed as a practical example.
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07.57.Pt Submillimeter wave, microwave and radiowave spectrometers; magnetic resonance spectrometers, auxiliary equipment, and techniques
84.30.Le Amplifiers

The energy dispersive x‐ray detector: A quantitative model

David C. Joy

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1772 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138092 (8 pages) | Cited 5 times

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When a Si(Li) solid‐state energy dispersive detector is used to collect x‐ray photons with energies below 2 keV the characteristic peaks in the spectrum show significant deviations from the ideal Gaussian shape observed for higher energy photons. This effect is due to incomplete collection of the charge deposited by the incident photon in the diode. The magnitude of this effect, and the resultant distortion of the spectrum, can be computed by means of a Monte Carlo simulation which models the detector in terms of the three parameters which characterize it, junction depth, diffusion length, and surface recombination velocity. For values of these parameters typical of commercial detectors it is found that the incomplete charge correction can be as high as 30% for a line such as N Kα at 400 eV. By matching simulated and experimental spectral shapes, quantitative corrections for each x‐ray line of interest can be computed. The results suggest that alternative design strategies for detectors might permit a higher quality of performance to be achieved at low energies.
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07.78.+s Electron, positron, and ion microscopes; electron diffractometers
32.70.Jz Line shapes, widths, and shifts
32.30.Rj X-ray spectra

Near‐infrared two‐color pyrometer for determining ignition temperatures of metals and metal alloys

Ke Nguyen and Melvyn C. Branch

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1780 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138093 (4 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A two‐color pyrometer has been designed, constructed, and used to measure the ignition temperatures of metals and metal alloys. Cylindrical metal and metal alloy specimens were ignited by a focused cw CO2 laser beam in a cool, static, pure oxygen environment. The pyrometer operates in the near‐infrared at two narrow spectral regions, with a nominal bandwidth of 10 nm centered at 0.9051 and 1.06 μm, and has a temperature range from 1000 to 4000 K. In the present design the temperature of a spot, ∼0.5 mm in diameter, can be recorded with a maximum time resolution of 25 μs and with an accuracy of a few percent. Results of CO2 laser ignition of cylindrical specimens of 6061 aluminum alloy and 302 SS in a pure oxygen environment were obtained from the two‐color pyrometer and were compared with those obtained from a thermocouple placed inside the specimen near the laser‐irradiated surface.
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07.20.Ka High-temperature instrumentation; pyrometers

Infrared fluorescence ‘‘decay‐time’’ temperature sensor

K. T. V. Grattan and A. W. Palmer

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1784 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138094 (4 pages) | Cited 38 times

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The principle of the change in the ‘‘decay time’’ of the fluorescence of a small sample of neodymium in a glass matrix, excited by infrared radiation from a high‐power light emitting diode has been used in the construction of a fiber‐optic temperature sensor. Such a device is an inexpensive transducer and has demonstrated a fiber‐optic sensor not requiring referencing to the intensity of the exciting radiation.
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07.20.Dt Thermometers
42.81.-i Fiber optics
07.07.Mp Transducers

Fully automated apparatus to measure the thermal conductivity of liquids by the transient hot‐wire method

N. Kawaguchi, Y. Nagasaka, and A. Nagashima

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1788 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138095 (7 pages) | Cited 5 times

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A new fully automated apparatus for measuring the thermal conductivity of liquids is described. This apparatus has been developed to meet the needs of industrial applications. The principle of the measurement is based on the absolute transient hot‐wire method. All data acquisition and instrument control can be performed using a microcomputer. After filling with a sample liquid in a cell the apparatus can automatically measure the thermal conductivity at the desired temperature without any manual procedures. The automated procedures include an algorithm to determine onset time of natural convection. The applicability of the apparatus has been tested to measure the thermal conductivity of toluene at room temperature and the results have an estimated accuracy of ±1.0 to ±1.5% depending on a sample to be measured.
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07.05.Hd Data acquisition: hardware and software
07.05.Kf Data analysis: algorithms and implementation; data management
07.05.Rm Data presentation and visualization: algorithms and implementation
66.25.+g Thermal conduction in nonmetallic liquids
05.70.Ce Thermodynamic functions and equations of state
07.20.Dt Thermometers

Design of a tubular reactor instrumentation assembly for conducting thermal decomposition studies

Wayne A. Rubey and Richard A. Carnes

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1795 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138096 (4 pages) | Cited 7 times

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A thermal instrumentation assembly which uses a high‐temperature tubular reactor for conducting gas‐phase thermal decomposition studies of organic substances has been designed. This thermal reactor assembly uses a counterflow heat exchanger in conjunction with a narrow‐bore quartz tubular reactor to obtain precise control over physical factors, such as exposure temperature, mean residence time, and gas‐phase residence‐time distribution. By virtue of the design of this quartz‐ware assembly, gaseous species are subjected to essentially a square‐wave thermal pulse as they pass through the thermal reactor.
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07.20.Ka High-temperature instrumentation; pyrometers
82.80.-d Chemical analysis and related physical methods of analysis

Ultrahigh‐vacuum cryostat and sample manipulator for operation between 5 and 800 K

M. Shayegan, J. M. Cavallo, G. Chottiner, and R. E. Glover

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1799 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138097 (5 pages) | Cited 4 times

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Design and performance of a cryostat with a rotatable sample stage for operation in ultrahigh vacuum is reported. The cryostat, which is designed for adsorption studies on single‐crystal metals at low temperatures, has a temperature range of 5.5≤T≤800 K. Sample cooling from 800 to 5.5 K is achieved in about 90 min.
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07.20.Mc Cryogenics; refrigerators, low-temperature detectors, and other low-temperature equipment

Subnanosecond protection circuits for oscilloscope inputs

G. R. Mitchel and C. Melançon

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1804 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138098 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

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Overvoltage protection circuits have been developed to protect oscilloscope inputs or other 50‐Ω recording systems from fast (τr∼1 ns) rise‐time pulses. These circuits are voltage dividers with linear output up to a specified level, typically 1.4 V, beyond which fast switching diodes limit the output to ≲5 V for inputs as high as 5 kV. The clipping circuits are frequency compensated for flat response to several hundred megahertz.
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07.50.Ek Circuits and circuit components

Feedback system for the characterization of nonideal Schottky diodes with high series resistance

Roberto M. Cibils and Román H. Buitrago

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 56, 1809 (1985); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1138099 (3 pages)

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In this work we describe a simple measurement system that allows us to obtain the characteristic parameters (the ideality factor n, the saturation current Is, and the series resistance R), for nonideal Schottky barrier diodes with high series resistance. The principal features of this new system are: analog processing of the measured signal (in order to avoid large errors coming from digital differentiation) and the easy interpretation of the shape of the I0‐VA curves obtained.
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85.30.Hi Surface barrier, boundary, and point contact devices
85.30.De Semiconductor-device characterization, design, and modeling
73.30.+y Surface double layers, Schottky barriers, and work functions
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