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Apr 1980

Volume 51, Issue 4, pp. 411-552

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Heat capacity cryostat and novel methods of analysis for small specimens in the 1.5–10 K range

E. M. Forgan and S. Nedjat

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 411 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136237 (7 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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We describe a method for measuring heat capacity of small specimens in the 1.5–10 K range by means of thermal relaxation over that range. Our methods of calibration and analysis make use of the simple properties of the thermal link between specimen and its surroundings, and offer several advantages. The cryostat has been used in magnetic fields of up to 4.5 T, and simple relationships for the magnetoresistance of heat links and thermometer have been determined. Measurement of the heat capacity of a 90 mg copper sample shows that the method is accurate to 1%.
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07.20.Mc Cryogenics; refrigerators, low-temperature detectors, and other low-temperature equipment

Beamlet steering by aperture displacement in ion sources with large acceleration‐deceleration ratio

J. R. Conrad

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 418 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136238 (7 pages) | Cited 13 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The steering of ion beamlets by aperture displacement is studied analytically and numerically for the case of triode extractors with large acceleration‐deceleration ratios. Here the acceleration‐deceleration ratio ϵ is defined by ϵ≡Va/Vb, where Va and Vb are the potentials applied to the second and third grids of the extractor, relative to the beam forming grid at zero potential. Both slit and round apertures are examined. When the second‐order effects of space charge and potential sag in the extractor are included in the analysis, good agreement with numerical simulations is obtained.
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29.25.Lg Ion sources: polarized
29.25.Ni Ion sources: positive and negative
29.27.Eg Beam handling; beam transport
41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams

Fast pulsed gas valve

C. J. Keyser, M. Dembinski, and P. K. John

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 425 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136239 (2 pages) | Cited 14 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A fast valve which can inject gas pulses with durations from 25 to 400 μs into a vacuum system is described. Quantities up to 5 Torr l can be injected. A pressure rise time of ∼0.5 Torr/μs has been determined at the valve opening. A fast opening time is achieved by having a magnetically accelerated ring collide with a disk which is used as a vacuum seal. Gas pulse parameters have been measured with a fast ionization gauge.
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07.30.Hd Vacuum testing methods; leak detectors

Butterfly‐valve inductive orientation detector

Steven Garrett

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 427 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136240 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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Relative changes of inductance ΔL/L of a single layer coil surrounding a thin electrically conducting disk which can rotate about an axis perpendicular to the coil axis are studied experimentally as a means of measuring angular displacements. ΔL/L is found to be a strong function of disk diameter and is weakly dependent on the ratio of disk thickness to electromagnetic skin depth when this ratio is of the order unity. Values of ΔL/L as a function of disk diameter are given for lead, brass and copper. Detection sensitivities using a resonant tank circuit or an astatic transformer are given in terms of ΔL/L and it is shown that sensitivities of the order of 10−3 to 10−4 deg are practical. Application of this system to the Rayleigh disk and cryogenic environments are emphasized and an expression for the magnetic torque due to detection currents is given.
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84.32.Hh Inductors and coils; wiring

Microcomputer-based data acquisition and stabilization system for piezoelectrically scanned Fabry-Perot interferomter

Masayoshi Yamada, Hiroyuki Ikeshima, and Yutaka Takahashi

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 431 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/ (4 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A microcomputer-based data acquisition and stabilization system is presented for piezoelectrically scanned plane-parallel Fabry-Perot interferometers which typically required some form of active stabilization system for long-term operation. The microcomputer takes the place of the programable ramp generator, multichannel analyzer, and stabilizer. The control algorithm developed here is workable against strong fluctuations of reference peak. Brillouin scattering spectrum from fused quartz is included to demonstrate the operation of the system.
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07.60.Lv
07.05.Hd Data acquisition: hardware and software
07.05.Kf Data analysis: algorithms and implementation; data management
07.05.Rm Data presentation and visualization: algorithms and implementation

Detection of cathodoluminescence of Giemsa stain and its applications

S. Basu

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 435 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136241 (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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Giemsa stain shows an intense and durable cathodoluminescence (CL) when studied at 20–30 kV with a quartz transmission light pipe–photomultiplier system in a scanning electron microscope. Clear CL images of Giemsa‐stained chromatin, nuclei, and chromosomes were recorded at low electron does (approximately 10−5–10−4 C/cm2). Careful and control experiments have suggested that true cathodoluminescence of Giemsa has been recorded. The CL emission of Giemsa is attributable to one of its ingredients, eosin‐y, whose bromine molecules apparently act as radiation scavengers.
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87.80.-y Biophysical techniques (research methods)
87.57.-s Medical imaging
87.63.-d Non-ionizing radiation equipment and techniques
87.85.Pq Biomedical imaging

Quasiquadrature interferometer for plasma density radial profile measurements: Achieving ten channel operation

D. D. Lowenthal

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 440 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136242 (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A quadrature interferometer designed to measure radial electron density profiles in a long (3 m) small bore (2.8 cm) plasma tube, and described previously in this journal, has been further developed to have ten simultaneously operating channels. Achieving multichannel operation was essential to the accurate measurement of radial electron density profiles and required the design, fabrication, and implementation of two closely matched optical polished quartz tube sections. The first polished cylinder forms the cross tube scene beam window and is used as a sleeve to join ceramic tube sections that comprise the bulk of the 3‐m plasma tube. The second matched cylindrical section is placed in the interferometer reference beam to compensate for the strong negative lens affects of the cylindrical scene beam window. Design criteria for the cylindrical tube sections is discussed, the plasma tube assembly technique is given, and typical ten channel data is presented for a laser heated 3‐m‐long theta‐pinch.
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52.70.Kz Optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) measurements
07.60.Ly Interferometers
42.25.Hz Interference

Random array grid collimators

E. E. Fenimore and R. L. Blake

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 445 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136243 (9 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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X‐ray collimators using grid patterns which are random offer several significant advantages over collimators using periodic grids. In particular, random array grid collimators (RAGC’s) eliminate the requirement that there be very closely spaced grids if a wide field of obscuration outside the central peak is desired. The RAGC should be less susceptible to systematic off‐axis leaks, and the RAGC has a better high energy response than a periodic grid collimator. The random array technique can also be used to produce converging or diverging collimators. A general theory is presented which predicts the angular response of a RAGC. It is shown that pure random arrays have two problems: there are strong wings in the response function and the patterns are not self‐supporting. Restrictions on the randomness of the pattern are suggested which eliminate these problems but at the price of putting an upper limit on the available throughput. However, even in the worst case, the upper limit for a two‐dimensional collimator is as high as 23%. In other cases, throughputs the order of 40% are possible with two‐dimensional collimators and of 50% with one‐dimensional collimators. These techniques can provide 10 arc second two‐dimensional collimators with a large collecting area. Suggestions are presented for easing the fabrication effort of the grids.
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07.85.-m X- and γ-ray instruments

Comparison of multiple‐scan direct and lock‐in detection in magnetic resonance: Application to nuclear acoustic resonance

G. R. Ashton, D. K. Hsu, and R. G. Leisure

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 454 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136244 (5 pages) | Cited 2 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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Theoretical expressions are derived for the signal‐to‐noise ratios in magnetic resonance experiments for the lock‐in and multiple‐scan direct detection schemes. Effects of noise character, post‐spectrometer filters, and modulation frequency are included in the analysis. The theoretical results are found to be in good agreement with experiment for the specific case of nuclear acoustic resonance in a metal single crystal.
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72.55.+s Magnetoacoustic effects
32.30.Bv Radio-frequency, microwave, and infrared spectra

An apparatus for the measurement of the rates of emanation of radon from rock specimens and powders

R. H. McCorkell and M. P. Brameld

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 459 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136245 (5 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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Specimens are placed in sealed chambers to which scintillation cells are attached and radon concentrations, R, are measured in the air of the chambers at intervals thereafter by inserting the cells into scintillation counters. The Rn emanation rate is calculated from the rate at which R increases, or from the maximum R reached. Uncertainties are estimated to be 10%–25%, detection limits 10−19 Ci cm−2 s−1 or 5×10−19 Ci g−1 s−1. Effects of disequlibrium in the Rn decay chain, or the diffusion rate of Rn, and of Rn leakage are considered. Powdering a rock usually has little effect on its emanation rate per gram.
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66.30.J- Diffusion of impurities
66.30.Ny Chemical interdiffusion; diffusion barriers

Laser‐heated high‐temperature EPR spectroscopy

T. A. Yager and W. D. Kingery

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 464 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136246 (3 pages) | Cited 5 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A CO2 laser‐heated sample holder for an EPR spectrometer capable of temperatures above 1200°C is described. Since only the sample is heated, this system permits rapid temperature changes and rotation of the magnet around the sample. The spectra of MgO containing Fe3+ and Cr3+ at room temperature and 1200°C are presented.
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76.30.-v Electron paramagnetic resonance and relaxation
61.05.Qr Magnetic resonance techniques; Mössbauer spectroscopy (for structure determination only)

Waveguide propagation in frozen gas matrices

R. Rossetti and L. E. Brus

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 467 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136247 (4 pages) | Cited 19 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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Laser beam waveguide propagation in frozen gaseous layers at 4.2 K has been investigated. Propagation lengths of ∼1 cm are observed on metallic mirror substrates. Structures enabling efficient laser injection have been devised. A scattering enhancement factor of 34 in a neon matrix is observed in the waveguide mode, as compared with normal front surface illumination.
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42.79.Gn Optical waveguides and couplers
07.20.Mc Cryogenics; refrigerators, low-temperature detectors, and other low-temperature equipment

Experimental study of ion beamlet steering by aperture displacement in two‐stage accelerator

Y. Okumura, Y. Mizutani, and Y. Ohara

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 471 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136248 (3 pages) | Cited 15 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The steering of ion beamlets in a two‐stage accelerator has been measured as functions of both aperture displacement and field intensity ratio between extraction and acceleration regions. Three different types of displacement have been investigated; i.e., displacement of (1) plasma grid, (2) gradient grid, or (3) suppressor grid with respect to the other three grids. In each case, the steering angle is found to be linear with the aperture displacement, and independent of final beam energy and beam current. The variation of steering angle with displacement distance is compared with the value predicted by linear theory using thin lens approximation. It is confirmed that they agree well in the case of (3), while they show appreciable differences in the cases of (1) and (2). This is because the lens effect of the gradient grid is weaker than is predicted by the linear theory. The deterioration of beam optics due to steering has not been observed.
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29.27.Eg Beam handling; beam transport
41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams

Surface ionization source for heavy ions

B. Rasser, D. I. C. Pearson, and M. Remy

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 474 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136249 (4 pages) | Cited 6 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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An ion source using the surface ionization process is described. Elements whose ionization potentials are below or around 6 eV may be ionized in the source. The element vapour to be ionized is passed through one or more rhenium grids on which surface ionization occurs. The source is tested for different elements—lithium, indium, rare earths, uranium—the latter corresponding to the upper limit of the ionization potential range. The properties and performance of the source are studied. Currents from many tens of μA to many mA have been extracted, depending on the source element.
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29.25.Lg Ion sources: polarized
29.25.Ni Ion sources: positive and negative

The GaAs spin polarized electron source

D. T. Pierce, R. J. Celotta, G.‐C. Wang, W. N. Unertl, A. Galejs, C. E. Kuyatt, and S. R. Mielczarek

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 478 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136250 (22 pages) | Cited 245 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The design, construction, operation, and performance of a spin polarized electron source utilizing photoemission from negative electron affinity (NEA) GaAs are presented in detail. A polarization of 43±2% is produced using NEA GaAs (100). The polarization can be easily modulated without affecting other characteristics of the electron beam. The electron beam intensity depends on the intensity of the exciting radiation at 1.6 eV; beam currents of 20 μA/mW are obtained. The source is electron optically bright; the emittance phase space (energy‐area‐solid angle product) is 0.043 eV mm2 sr. The light optics, electron optics, and cathode preparation including the GaAs cleaning and activation to NEA are discussed in depth. The origin of the spin polarization in the photoexcitation process is reviewed and new equations describing the depolarization of photoelectrons in the emission process are derived. Quantum yield and polarization measurements for both NEA and positive electron affinity surfaces are reported. The important considerations for interfacing he polarized electron source to an experiment are illustrated by its application to polarized low energy electron diffraction (PLEED). The advantages of this spin polarization modulated electron gun for PLEED are clearly demonstrated by sample PLEED results for W(100) and ferromagnetic Ni(110). A comparison with other polarized electron sources shows that the GaAs spin polarized electron source offers many advantages for a wide range of applications.
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29.25.Bx Electron sources

Low energy ion beam transport by permanent magnets

K. W. Ehlers and K. N. Leung

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 500 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136251 (4 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The guiding of a 300 eV divergent hydrogen ion beam by a surface magnetic field generated by samarium cobalt magnets has been investigated. It was found that magnets arranged in a multi‐ring‐cusp configuration produced the best beam transport efficiency.
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29.27.Eg Beam handling; beam transport
41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams

Sensor for the measurement of the level and volume of conductive liquids

Kenneth R. Walton

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 504 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136252 (5 pages) | Cited 1 time

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A sensor for the measurement of the level and volume of liquids is described. The device employs an array of point sensors, each of which is sensitive to the large changes in impedance between a conductive liquid and the gas above it. The device, in principle, will function in any liquid medium that can conduct an electric current without significantly perturbing that medium. It has in fact been successfully tested in aqueous solutions with conductivity ranging from 9.0×10−7 Ω−1 cm−1 to 0.38 Ω−1 cm−1. The sensor is activated with either AC or DC applied voltage and used with electronic circuits having linear outputs. The sensor’s output is solution independent and a function of the number of conducting electrodes. The precision of the sensor is controlled by the spacing of its electrode array. The linear output of the sensor has been correlated linearly to solution volume regardless of the shape of the solution tank by the use of unequal spacing between the array electrodes. Several designs of sensors with fixed and adjustable precision are described.
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06.30.Bp Spatial dimensions (e.g., position, lengths, volume, angles, and displacements)
07.50.-e Electrical and electronic instruments and components

High precision 3He‐vapor‐pressure gauge for use to 0.3 K

D. S. Greywall and P. A. Busch

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 509 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136254 (2 pages) | Cited 20 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The design and performance of a compact, high precision, capacitive, vapor‐pressure gauge is described. The gauge was constructed using a thin electrodeposited copper diaphragm.
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07.90.+c Other topics in instruments, apparatus, and components common to several branches of physics and astronomy (restricted to new topics in section 07)

Low energy H atom analyzer using a cesium heat pipe

D. Brisson, F. W. Baity, B. H. Quon, J. A. Ray, and C. F. Barnett

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 511 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136226 (5 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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The efficiency of detecting H and D atoms (E<1 keV) escaping a plasma has been increased by use of a cesium vapor cell to form negative ions by electron attachment collisions. A 30 cm long heat pipe confines the cesium to a localized region. The resulting negative ions are energy analyzed with a single‐channel, parabolic parallel‐plate analyzer and detected by a channel multiplier. The H0 conversion efficiency was 10−2 at 100 eV, increasing to 3.8×10−2 at 500 eV. For a H0 energy of 100 eV, the analyzer is 2.5 orders of magnitude more efficient than a comparable N2 stripping cell analyzer. The analyzer has been used to measure ion temperatures as low as 30 eV on the EBT Plasma experiment.
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52.25.Fi Transport properties

A new method for measuring the particle size distribution of aerosols

R. J. Tropp, P. J. Kuhn, and J. R. Brock

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 516 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136227 (5 pages) | Cited 7 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A new method (electronic cascade impaction) of measuring the particle size distribution of aerosols is presented, and an instrument we call an electronic cascade impactor (ECI) which uses the method is described. Aerosol particles are charged in a unipolar charger and enter a multistage cascade impactor. Each collection stage and the final filter is isolated electrically from other parts of the impactor and connected to an electrometer detector. Particles deposit on the collection stages according to their aerodynamic diameters, and from the associated electrical current the deposition rate onto each stage and the particle size distribution can be determined. Calibration data for the ECI are presented. The ECI has been used to study atmospheric aerosol dynamics in real time, and typical data are given. The ECI has proven to be relialbe in several hundred hours of laboratory and field use and other versions employing the same general method should prove useful in a wide variety of measurement situations.
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92.60.Mt Particles and aerosols
82.70.Rr Aerosols and foams

A magnetic‐reluctance thickness gauge for high conductivity, ferromagnetic films

S. R. Ryan and A. R. Ryan

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 521 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136228 (7 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A magnetic comparator for measuring the thickness of high conductivity, ferromagnetic films is described. The instrument compares the reluctance of a standard sample to that of a film of unknown thickness at the same value of magnetic field intensity to insure that the permeability is the same for both. The comparator utilizes an ac Hartshorn, mutual‐inductance bridge configuration and is designed to operate at low frequency and low magnetic field intensity to maximize the skin depth δ and thus the measurable film thickness. The output of the comparator is linear in thickness for films less than δ/2 and is capable of measuring films of thickness greater than δ with some reduction in accuracy. The effects of the skin depth and magnetic properties of the film on the accuracy of the comparator are discussed.
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07.55.-w Magnetic instruments and components
07.07.-a General equipment
75.50.-y Studies of specific magnetic materials

High efficiency melting furnace

H. G. Riveros, W. K. Cory, R. Toca, and E. Cabrera

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 528 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136229 (5 pages) | Cited 3 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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With a hot plate and a spherical mirror, a highly efficient crucible heating furnace was theoretically calculated and constructed. The upper part of the crucible provides free access to the melt, as is needed in the Czochralski crystal growth technique. For the design, the heat radiation flow between the hot plate, a cylindrical crucible, and the enclosing ellipsoidal mirror was computed. The calculated temperature profiles on the crucible, for different values of the crucible diameter and the eccentricity of the ellipsoid are shown and a comparison is made with the constructed oven. Using a cylindrical crucible (od=5 cm, height=5 cm), the power consumption is 720 W during the growth of NaCl (≈800 °C).
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07.20.Hy Furnaces; heaters

High pressure apparatus for PVT measurements of liquids and plastic crystals at low temperatures

R. Landau and A. Würflinger

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 533 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136230 (3 pages) | Cited 16 times

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A high pressure apparatus for determining PVT data of liquids and plastic crystals and volume changes which might accompany phase transitions is described. In the present investigation the PVT data of acetonitrile have been determined from +40° to −50 °C and up to 3000 bar, including the volume changes due to the melting and to a solid–solid transition. The procedure for calibrating this apparatus is discussed. The accuracy of the PVT data is supposed to be better than 0.1%, both for the liquid and the solid state.
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07.90.+c Other topics in instruments, apparatus, and components common to several branches of physics and astronomy (restricted to new topics in section 07)
07.35.+k High-pressure apparatus; shock tubes; diamond anvil cells

Broad beam ion source operation with four common gases

S. Pak and J. R. Sites

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 536 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136231 (4 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A Kaufman‐type broad beam ion source, used for sputtering and etching purposes, has been operated with Ar, Kr, O2 and N2 gas inputs over a wide range of beam energies (200–1200 eV) and gas flow rates (1–10 sccm). The maximum ion beam current density for each gas saturates at about 2.5 mA/cm2 as gas flow is increased. The discharge threshold voltage necessary to produce a beam and the beam efficiency (beam current/molecular current), however, varied considerably. Kr had the lowest threshold and highest efficiency, Ar next, then N2 and O2. The ion beam current varied only weakly with beam energy for low gas flow rates, but showed a factor of two increase when the gas flow was higher.
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29.25.Lg Ion sources: polarized
29.25.Ni Ion sources: positive and negative
41.75.Ak Positive-ion beams
41.75.Cn Negative-ion beams

Gravity fed Hg heat pipe: Its use in the production of a high purity, fixed density of Hg atoms

L. A. Schlie, L. E. Jusinski, and R. D. Rathge

Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51, 540 (1980); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1136232 (6 pages)

Online Publication Date: 22 July 2008

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A modified heat pipe employing Hg as the working fluid and utilizing gravity to return the liquid Hg from the condensative to the evaporative zone is described. This device provides an easy and rapid means of producing a fixed density of Hg atoms of high purity for any test cell configuration without employing elaborate Hg distillation techniques. Densities from 1016 to 1020/cm3 can be easily acquired with a variable inert gas density.
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44.25.+f Natural convection
47.27.T- Turbulent transport processes
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