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Top 20 Most Read Articles
September 2010
The 20 articles with the most full-text downloads during the month, in descending order.
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WSXM: A software for scanning probe microscopy and a tool for nanotechnology Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 013705 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2432410 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 31 January 2007
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In this work we briefly describe the most relevant features of WSXM, a freeware scanning probe microscopy software based on MS-Windows. The article is structured in three different sections: The introduction is a perspective on the importance of software on scanning probe microscopy. The second section is devoted to describe the general structure of the application; in this section the capabilities of WSXM to read third party files are stressed. Finally, a detailed discussion of some relevant procedures of the software is carried out.
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Invited Review Article: IceCube: An instrument for neutrino astronomy Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 081101 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3480478 (24 pages) Online Publication Date: 30 August 2010
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Neutrino astronomy beyond the Sun was first imagined in the late 1950s; by the 1970s, it was realized that kilometer-scale neutrino detectors were required. The first such instrument, IceCube, is near completion and taking data. The IceCube project transforms 1 km3 of deep and ultratransparent Antarctic ice into a particle detector. A total of 5160 optical sensors is embedded into a gigaton of Antarctic ice to detect the Cherenkov light emitted by secondary particles produced when neutrinos interact with nuclei in the ice. Each optical sensor is a complete data acquisition system including a phototube, digitization electronics, control and trigger systems, and light-emitting diodes for calibration. The light patterns reveal the type (flavor) of neutrino interaction and the energy and direction of the neutrino, making neutrino astronomy possible. The scientific missions of IceCube include such varied tasks as the search for sources of cosmic rays, the observation of galactic supernova explosions, the search for dark matter, and the study of the neutrinos themselves. These reach energies well beyond those produced with accelerator beams. The outline of this review is as follows: neutrino astronomy and kilometer-scale detectors, high-energy neutrino telescopes: methodologies of neutrino detection, IceCube hardware, high-energy neutrino telescopes: beyond astronomy, and future projects.
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Logarithmic based optical delay for time-resolved data collection Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 093101 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3474226 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 8 September 2010
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A method has been established that generates values spaced according to a mathematical function, specifically the logarithm function that can be applied to a stepper motor. Here, it is applied to yield logarithmically spaced time delay points for subnanosecond interferometric time-resolved experiments using a stepper motor controlled translation stage. Application of this method is discussed in terms of three input parameters: the optical delay stage time resolution, dt; the time of maximum delay, dstop; and the desired number of data points, N. The method improves the efficiency of interferometric time-resolved data collection while providing data collection effective to determine decay parameters. In principle, this technique could be generalized to any mathematical function.
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 78, 031101 (2007); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2709758 (20 pages) Online Publication Date: 30 March 2007
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The technique of atom probe tomography (APT) is reviewed with an emphasis on illustrating what is possible with the technique both now and in the future. APT delivers the highest spatial resolution (sub-0.3-nm) three-dimensional compositional information of any microscopy technique. Recently, APT has changed dramatically with new hardware configurations that greatly simplify the technique and improve the rate of data acquisition. In addition, new methods have been developed to fabricate suitable specimens from new classes of materials. Applications of APT have expanded from structural metals and alloys to thin multilayer films on planar substrates, dielectric films, semiconducting structures and devices, and ceramic materials. This trend toward a broader range of materials and applications is likely to continue.
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 093701 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3477995 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 2 September 2010
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We propose a general procedure to determine the optimum imaging parameters (spring constant and oscillation amplitude) to obtain the optimum resolution in frequency modulation atomic force microscopy. We calculated the effective signal-to-noise ratio for various spring constants and oscillation amplitudes, based on the measurement of frequency shift and energy dissipation versus tip-sample distance curves, to find the optimum. We applied this procedure for imaging a lead phthalocyanine (PbPc) thin film on a MoS2(0001) substrate, and found that the optimum parameters were about 5 N/m and 20 nm, respectively. An improved signal-to-noise ratio was attained in a preliminary experiment using parameters which were close to the calculated optimum.
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Single-molecule binding experiments on long time scales Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 083705 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3473936 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 27 August 2010
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We describe an approach for performing single-molecule binding experiments on time scales from hours to days, allowing for the observation of slower kinetics than have been previously investigated by single-molecule techniques. Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy is used to image the binding of labeled ligand to molecules specifically coupled to the surface of an optically transparent flow cell. Long-duration experiments are enabled by ensuring sufficient positional, chemical, thermal, and image stability. Principal components of this experimental stability include illumination timing, solution replacement, and chemical treatment of solution to reduce photodamage and photobleaching; and autofocusing to correct for spatial drift.
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Femtosecond pulse shaping using spatial light modulators Rev. Sci. Instrum. 71, 1929 (2000); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1150614 (32 pages)
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We review the field of femtosecond pulse shaping, in which Fourier synthesis methods are used to generate nearly arbitrarily shaped ultrafast optical wave forms according to user specification. An emphasis is placed on programmable pulse shaping methods based on the use of spatial light modulators. After outlining the fundamental principles of pulse shaping, we then present a detailed discussion of pulse shaping using several different types of spatial light modulators. Finally, new research directions in pulse shaping, and applications of pulse shaping to optical communications, biomedical optical imaging, high power laser amplifiers, quantum control, and laser-electron beam interactions are reviewed. © 2000 American Institute of Physics. |
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Versatile apparatus for attosecond metrology and spectroscopy Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 093103 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3475689 (8 pages) Online Publication Date: 14 September 2010
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We present the AS-2 Attosecond Beamline at the Joint Laboratory for Attosecond Physics of the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik and Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität for time resolved pump/probe experiments with attosecond resolution. High harmonic generation and subsequent filtering of the generated extreme ultraviolet (XUV) continuum by means of metal filters and XUV multilayer mirrors serve for the generation of isolated attosecond laser pulses. After high harmonic generation, the remaining fundamental laser pulse is spatially separated from the attosecond XUV pulse, to what is to our knowledge for the first time, by means of a perforated mirror in a Mach–Zehnder interferometer. Active stabilization of this interferometer guarantees the necessary temporal resolution for tracking attosecond dynamics in real time. As a proof-of-principle, photoelectron streaking experiments are performed and experimental techniques for their realization are summarized. Finally we highlight the potential of the presented beamline system for future experiments in comparison with previously demonstrated attosecond beamlines.
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Fabry–Pérot interferometer utilized for displacement measurement in a large measuring range Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 093102 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3480551 (3 pages) Online Publication Date: 13 September 2010
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The optical configuration of a Fabry–Pérot interferometer is uncomplicated. This has already been applied in different measurement systems. For the displacement measurement with the Fabry–Pérot interferometer, the result is significantly influenced by the tilt angles of the measurement mirror in the interferometer. Hence, only for the rather small measuring range, the Fabry–Pérot interferometer is available. The goal of this investigation is to enhance the measuring range of Fabry–Pérot interferometer by compensating the tilt angles. To verify the measuring characteristic of the self-developed Fabry–Pérot interferometer, some comparison measurements with a reference standard have been performed. The maximum deviation of comparison experiments is less than 0.3 μm in the traveling range of 30 mm. The experimental results show that the Fabry–Pérot interferometer is highly stable, insensitive to environment effects, and can meet the measuring requirement of the submicrometer order.
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On the magnetic field near the center of Helmholtz coils Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 084701 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3474227 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 24 August 2010
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We develop a series expansion for the calculation of the magnetic field near the center of Helmholtz coils and apply the result to a magnet of our design. Our analysis considers geometric details of the coils, the magnetic properties of the form and windings, conductor insulation effects, and several winding imperfections. We also consider the relaxation of coil symmetry which happens when the mean radius of each coil and the coil midplane separation distance are unequal. We compute the field uniformity near the coil’s center for three cases, including one where axial symmetry remains but geometric imperfections of the order of 10−3 of the coil “radius” exist.
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 094701 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3477997 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 3 September 2010
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Piezoelectric actuators exhibit large hysteresis between the applied voltage and their displacement. A switched capacitor charge pump is proposed to reduce hysteresis and linearize the movement of piezoelectric actuators. By pumping the same amount of charges into the piezoelectric actuator quantitatively, the actuator will be forced to change its length with constant step. Compared with traditional voltage and charge driving, experimental results demonstrated that the piezoelectric stack driven by the charge pump had less hysteresis over a large frequency range, especially at ultralow frequencies. A hysteresis of less than 2.01% was achieved over a frequency range of 0.01–20 Hz using the charge pump driver.
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Note: Multiscale scanning probe microscopy Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 086101 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3473935 (3 pages) Online Publication Date: 16 August 2010
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Combining the nanoscopic and macroscopic worlds is a serious challenge common to numerous scientific fields, from physics to biology. In this paper, we demonstrate nanometric resolution over a millimeter range by means of atomic-force microscopy using metrological stage. Nanometric repeatability and millimeter range open up the possibility of probing components and materials combining multiscale properties i.e., engineered nanomaterials. Multiscale probing is not limited to atomic-force microscopy and can be extended to any type of scanning probe technique in nanotechnology, including piezoforce microscopy, electrostatic-force microscopy, and scanning near-field optical microscopy.
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Broadband electron spin resonance at 4–40 GHz and magnetic fields up to 10 T Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 093901 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3469783 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 3 September 2010
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A broadband electron spin resonance spectrometer is described which operates at frequencies between 4 and 40 GHz and can be used in superconducting magnets. A tunable cylindrical cavity is connected to a vector network analyzer via coaxial cables, and the radiation is fed into the cavity by a coupling loop. No field modulation is employed. Resonance frequencies below 14 GHz are obtained by inserting dielectrics with different permittivities into the cavity. The setup allows for measurements with the microwave magnetic field either parallel or perpendicular to the external field.
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Tunable ultrafast extreme ultraviolet source for time- and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 073108 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3460267 (7 pages) Online Publication Date: 20 July 2010
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We present a laser-based apparatus suitable for visible pump/extreme UV (XUV) probe time-, energy-, and angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy utilizing high-harmonic generation from a noble gas. Tunability in a wide range of energies (currently 20–36 eV) is achieved by using a time-delay compensated monochromator, which also preserves the ultrashort duration of the XUV pulses. Using an amplified laser system at 10 kHz repetition rate, approximately 109–1010 photons/s per harmonic are made available for photoelectron spectroscopy. Parallel energy and momentum detection is carried out in a hemispherical electron analyzer coupled with an imaging detector. First applications demonstrate the capabilities of the instrument to easily select the probe wavelength of choice, to obtain angle-resolved photoemission maps (GaAs and URu2Si2), and to trace ultrafast electron dynamics in an optically excited semiconductor (Ge).
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 099501 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3488622 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 16 September 2010
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In order to supplement manufacturers’ information this Department will welcome the submission by our readers of brief communications reporting measurements on the physical properties of materials which supersede earlier data or suggest new research applications.
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 76, 061101 (2005); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1927327 (12 pages) Online Publication Date: 26 May 2005
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Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are drawing interest from both technical and scientific communities. These are electromechanical systems, much like microelectromechanical systems, mostly operated in their resonant modes with dimensions in the deep submicron. In this size regime, they come with extremely high fundamental resonance frequencies, diminished active masses,and tolerable force constants; the quality (Q) factors of resonance are in the range Q ∼ 103–105—significantly higher than those of electrical resonant circuits. These attributes collectively make NEMS suitable for a multitude of technological applications such as ultrafast sensors, actuators, and signal processing components. Experimentally, NEMS are expected to open up investigations of phonon mediated mechanical processes and of the quantum behavior of mesoscopic mechanical systems. However, there still exist fundamental and technological challenges to NEMS optimization. In this review we shall provide a balanced introduction to NEMS by discussing the prospects and challenges in this rapidly developing field and outline an exciting emerging application, nanoelectromechanical mass detection.
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Adapting TESLA technology for future cw light sources using HoBiCaT Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 074701 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3443561 (9 pages) Online Publication Date: 12 July 2010
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The HoBiCaT facility has been set up and operated at the Helmholtz-Zentrum-Berlin and BESSY since 2005. Its purpose is testing superconducting cavities in cw mode of operation and it was successfully demonstrated that TESLA pulsed technology can be used for cw mode of operation with only minor changes. Issues that were addressed comprise of elevated dynamic thermal losses in the cavity walls, necessary modifications in the cryogenics and the cavity processing, the optimum choice of operational parameters such as cavity temperature or bandwidth, the characterization of higher order modes in the cavity, and the usability of existing tuners and couplers for cw.
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Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 089501 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3478714 (4 pages) Online Publication Date: 23 August 2010
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In order to supplement manufacturers’ information this Department will welcome the submission by our readers of brief communications reporting measurements on the physical properties of materials which supersede earlier data or suggest new research applications.
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Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine Rev. Sci. Instrum. 77, 041101 (2006); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2195024 (22 pages) Online Publication Date: 17 April 2006
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Photoacoustic imaging (also called optoacoustic or thermoacoustic imaging) has the potential to image animal or human organs, such as the breast and the brain, with simultaneous high contrast and high spatial resolution. This article provides an overview of the rapidly expanding field of photoacoustic imaging for biomedical applications. Imaging techniques, including depth profiling in layered media, scanning tomography with focused ultrasonic transducers, image forming with an acoustic lens, and computed tomography with unfocused transducers, are introduced. Special emphasis is placed on computed tomography, including reconstruction algorithms, spatial resolution, and related recent experiments. Promising biomedical applications are discussed throughout the text, including (1) tomographic imaging of the skin and other superficial organs by laser-induced photoacoustic microscopy, which offers the critical advantages, over current high-resolution optical imaging modalities, of deeper imaging depth and higher absorption contrasts, (2) breast cancer detection by near-infrared light or radio-frequency–wave-induced photoacoustic imaging, which has important potential for early detection, and (3) small animal imaging by laser-induced photoacoustic imaging, which measures unique optical absorption contrasts related to important biochemical information and provides better resolution in deep tissues than optical imaging.
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A lightweight near-infrared spectrometer for the detection of trace atmospheric species Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, 083102 (2010); http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3455827 (11 pages) Online Publication Date: 3 August 2010
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This paper describes the development and deployment of a lightweight in situ near-infrared tunable diode laser absorption spectrometer (TDLAS) for balloon-borne measurements of trace species such as methane in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. The key feature of the instrument design is its ability to provide high sensitivity measurements with better than 1 part in 106 Hz−1/2 optical sensitivity in a lightweight package weighing as little as 6 kg, and maintaining this level of performance over the wide range of conditions experienced during field measurements. The absolute accuracy for methane measurements is approximately 10% limited by uncertainties in determining the gas temperature in the measurement volume. The high sensitivity and high temporal resolution (2.3 s measurement period) enables details of the fine-scale structure in the atmosphere to be measured. The TDLAS instrument has been used on a number of major international measurement campaigns. Intercomparison with other instruments during these campaigns have confirmed the comparability of the results from this instrument with measurements made by a range of other techniques, and demonstrated the instruments suitability for studies of atmospheric dynamics, transport, and mixing processes.
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